Since the red men have been exterminated by you white savages, I amuse myself by presiding at the persecutions of Quakers and Anabaptists; I am the great patron and prompter of slave-dealers and the grand-master of the Salem witches." A) Irving is praising the colonists for taking a stand against evil. Although questions were raised about the biblical validity of infant baptism in the early years of the Reformation, the movements first adult baptism took place at Zollikon, outside Zrich, probably on January 21, 1525. Also, Rebecca Janzens Liminal Sovereignty: Mennonites and Mormons in Mexican Culture is an important contribution to the discussion around race, imperialism, and settler colonialism. Anabaptist Beliefs. Working toward restitution will mean changing how we think about the Anabaptist past alongside reformulating our public institutions. We invite readers to submit further reading suggestions in the moderated comments section. ", literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Hymnody of continental Europe Anabaptists, Association of Evangelical Mennonite Churches of France, Canadian Conference of Mennonite Brethren Churches, "Outsider's Guide to America's Anabaptists", "What about Old Orders, Hutterites, Conservatives, River Brethren and Others? Tobin Miller Shearer, A Prophet Pushed Out: Vincent Harding and the Mennonites, Mennonite Life 69 (2015): online. Beginning in the 1950s, the most conservative of them started to migrate to Bolivia. The group moved to England after the Gestapo confiscated their property in 1933, and they subsequently moved to Paraguay in order to avoid military conscription, and after World War II, they moved to the United States. [43] For several years Hoffman preached in the Low Countries until he was arrested and imprisoned at Strasbourg, where he died about 10 years later. [80], Some similarities exist between Baptists and the Anabaptists, which is why some historians have argued that the Baptists were influenced by the Anabaptists. ), After the Backcountry: Rural Life in the Great . Originally a derogatory term, Anabaptist (from the Greek term anabaptizein which means to baptize again) meant "re-baptizer," because some of these believers who had been baptized as infants were baptized again. Anabaptists in Moravia - Martin Rothkegel 7. Updates? In November 1535, Hutter was captured near Klausen and taken to Innsbruck where he was burned at the stake on February 25, 1536. Felipe Hinojosa, Freedom Dreams: On the Legacy of the Minority Ministries Council, Anabaptist Historians, April 24, 2017. Historians may take different approaches toward this end. As Pennsylvania's social and economic structure developed, ties with the West Indies and other trade outlets flourished. We acknowledge the profound incompleteness of this anti-racist reading list. Ben Goossen, Mennonites and Empire, Anabaptist Historians, September 21, 2018. "When such believers come together, 'Everyone of you (note every one) hath a psalm, hath a doctrine, hath a revelation, hath an interpretation', and so on. Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are Anabaptist denominations that developed well after the Radical Reformation, following their example. His Origin of the Anabaptists is an account of how the sect began as well as its persecution by the Swiss reformer Huldrych Zwingli . Anabaptist, (from Greek ana, again) member of a fringe, or radical, movement of the Protestant Reformation and spiritual ancestor of modern Baptists, Mennonites, and Quakers. They wanted to restore original Christendom, which, they felt, had been derailed by various forms of worldliness and Constantinism. Amish stay away from any kind of confrontation and work harmoniously with nature. The modern-day Brethren movement is a combination of Anabaptism and Radical Pietism. It told the fictional tale of a family of Indiana Quakers who were faced with the same decision as Nissley and the German Anabaptists - peaceful nonresistance or take up arms and join the fighting. In 1958, Mexican Mennonites migrated to Belize. Although Moravian Anabaptism was a transplant from other areas of Europe, Moravia soon became a center for the growing movement, largely because of the greater religious tolerance found there. Others who have written in support of polygenesis include Grete Mecenseffy[de] and Walter Klaassen, who established links between Thomas Mntzer and Hans Hut. Regina Shands Stoltzfus, Mennonites, Mission and Race: The Cleveland Experiment, Anabaptist Historians,November 15, 2016. [47][48] Hans Hut was an early evangelist in the area, with one historian crediting him with baptizing more converts in two years than all the other Anabaptist evangelists put together. This believer's baptism is opposed to baptism of infants, who are not able to make a conscious decision to be baptized. Your email address will not be published. George Blaurock (l. c. 1491-1529) was one of the three founders of the Swiss Brethren (known by their opponents as Anabaptists) along with Conrad Grebel (l. c. 1498-1526) and Felix Manz (l. c. 1498-1527). The pacifist Anabaptists in the Netherlands and northern Germany rallied under the leadership of the former priest Menno Simons and his associate Dirk Philips. Soon civil magistrates took sterner measures, and most of the early Anabaptist leaders died in prison or were executed. Regina Shands Stoltzfus, Telling All of Our Stories as a Movement To Peace, Anabaptist Historians,August 24, 2017. But others came from Silesia, Switzerland, German lands, and the Low Countries. He was imprisoned in that city in 1533 and died about 10 years later. There is no Anabaptist church; rather, Anabaptists are groups of Christians emphasizing similar faith positions. Andreas Karlstadt, who first worked alongside Martin Luther, is seen as a forerunner of South German Anabaptism because of his reforming theology that rejected many Catholic practices, including infant baptism. ", Kreider, Robert. N2N Solution Provider | N2NSP > Uncategorized > anabaptists and slavery. Anabaptism emerged as a Christian movement in sixteenth-century Europe, but today its heirswhether called Mennonite, Brethren, Amish, neo-Anabaptist, or any number of other designationsare scattered around the world, and especially the global South. anabaptists and slaveryliver shih tzu puppies. While Martin Luther was leading the Protestant reformation in Germany, a lesser known Reformed leader was leading a similar group in Zurich Switzerland. [9][12][10][11], Anabaptists view themselves as a separate branch of Christianity, not being a part of Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy or Eastern Orthodoxy. Tobin Miller Shearer, Confronting the Confessional Catharsis: David A. Shank and the Legacy of Race Criminals, Anabaptist Historians, April 19, 2019. anabaptists and slavery derek ramsay and angelica panganiban relationship. Historians and sociologists have made further distinctions between radical Anabaptists, who were prepared to use violence in their attempts to build a New Jerusalem, and their pacifist brethren, later broadly known as Mennonites. Most only assert this in relation to their church doctrines, polity, and practice (e.g., the ordinances), while a few hold they are the only true Christians. A unique type of Anabaptism, developed later in Moravia under the leadership of Jakob Hutter, stressed the common ownership of goods modeled on the primitive church in Jerusalem. Anabaptism is a religious movement that started during the Protestant Reformation. 6. Anabaptists are believers of the Anabaptist Christian movement whose origin is traced back to the Radical Reformation. They are famous for their traditional lifestyle and simple attire. The social ideals of the Anabaptist movement coincided closely with those of leaders in the German Peasants' War. Sattler was arrested and executed soon afterwards. They preached an apocalyptic, radical alternative to Lutheranism. We, the board of Anabaptist Historians, are enraged and heartbroken. With orders from the lords of Liechtenstein to leave Nikolsburg, about 200 Stbler withdrew to Moravia to form a community at Austerlitz. Anabaptists were heavily persecuted during the 16th century and into the 17th century by both Protestants and Roman Catholics, including being drowned and burned at the stake. small cabin homes for sale in louisiana. Slave Hire and the Development of Slavery in Augusta County, Virginia,. Hans Denck and Hans Hut, both with German Mystical background (in connection with Thomas Mntzer) both accepted "rebaptism", but Denck eventually backed off from the idea under pressure. In Germany, the National Socialist Racial Observer took up their cause. They considered the public confession of sin and faith, sealed by adult baptism, to be the only proper baptism. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). In the late 18th century, several thousand of them migrated from there to Ukraine (which at the time was part of Russia) forming the so-called Russian Mennonites. When the prediction failed, some of his converts became discouraged and left the Anabaptist movement. KEY POINTS. Some of those who participated in conventicles where Protestant ideas were presented later became Anabaptists. Such as Timothy Epp boca beacon obituaries. Historians regard the episode at Mnster as an aberration of the Anabaptist movement. Some of Hofmanns followers, such as the Dutchman Jan Mathijs (died 1534) and John of Leiden (Jan Beuckelson; died 1536), and many persecuted Anabaptists settled in Mnster, Westphalia. The Mennonites were a branch of Anabaptists that formed in 16th-century Holland, and they bear the name of their founder -- Menno Simons. Article. Anthony Siegrist, Part of the Authority Structure: An Organizational History of Mennonite Indian Residential Schools in Ontario,, Kimberly Schmidt, Moneneheo and Naheverein: Cheyenne and Mennonite Sewing Circles, Convergences and Conflicts, 1890-1970,, Philipp Gollner, How Mennonites Became White: Religious Activism, Cultural Power, and the City,, Anicka Fast, Sacred Children and Colonial Subsidies: The Missionary Performance of Racial Separation in Belgian Congo, 19461959,. The Anabaptists began in Zurich, Switzerland in 1525. In 1527, Michael Sattler presided over a meeting at Schleitheim (in the Canton of Schaffhausen, on the Swiss-German border), where Anabaptist leaders drew up the Schleitheim Confession of Faith (doc. The parents agonize when a son rejects his religious upbringing and joins the Union army. Felipe Hinojosa, Place Matters, Anabaptist Historians, September 22, 2016. (The two were related. Some uncover troubling examples of racism in the church. [36], Afterwards Blaurock was baptized, he in turn baptized others at the meeting. The Protestants under Zwingli were the first to persecute the Anabaptists, with Felix Manz becoming the first Anabaptist martyr in 1527. On this date the Swiss Brethren wrote a declaration of belief called the Schleitheim Confession. The division between Zwingli and his more radical disciples became apparent in an October 1523 disputation held in Zurich. He classes the likes of Blaurock, Grebel, Balthasar Hubmaier, Manz, Marpeck, and Simons as Anabaptists. On the other hand, some town councils as that of . One reason given for not attending the state churches was that these institutions forbade the congregation to exercise spiritual gifts according to "the Christian order as taught in the gospel or the Word of God in 1 Corinthians 14". There they formed the Vistula delta Mennonites integrating some other Mennonites mainly from Northern Germany. George Williams identified three major groups within what he called the "Radical Reformation"Anabaptists, Spiritualists, and Evangelical Rationalists.1 The significance of the Anabaptists, Williams explains, is that they "organized disciplined communities of believers, stressing at once individual faith and witness (adult baptism) and corporate discipline (the ban); and they adhered . Smaller groups went to Brazil and Uruguay. Another important leader, Melchior Hofmann, established a large following in the Netherlands and inspired a number of disciples. To Zwingli, the reforms would only go as fast as the city Council allowed them. When someone comes to church and constantly hears only one person speaking, and all the listeners are silent, neither speaking nor prophesying, who can or will regard or confess the same to be a spiritual congregation, or confess according to 1 Corinthians 14 that God is dwelling and operating in them through His Holy Spirit with His gifts, impelling them one after another in the above-mentioned order of speaking and prophesying. Since the red men have been exterminated by you white savages, I amuse myself by presiding at the persecutions of Quakers and Anabaptists; I am the great patron and prompter of slave-dealers and the grand-master of the Salem witches. Even though some had rejected infant baptism before this date, these baptisms marked the first re-baptisms of those who had been baptized as infants and thus, technically, Swiss Anabaptism was born on that day. They called themselves Baptists but were called Anabaptists by their enemies because they were accused of rebaptizing adults. [84] Moreover, Baptist historian Chris Traffanstedt maintains that Anabaptists share "some similarities with the early General Baptists, but overall these similarities are slight and not always relational. ,14 It's separate from Protestant and Catholic belief systems because Anabaptists believe that baptism is a choice.As a result, children born into Anabaptist faiths are not baptized, and they're encouraged to learn about the faith before choosing to be baptized when they become adults . It was the result of the dissatisfaction of a group of Swiss reformer Huldrych Zwinglis followers, led by the patrician humanist Konrad Grebel, over Zwinglis unwillingness to undertake what they considered necessary reforms. Medieval dissenters and Anabaptists who held to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount share in common the following affirmations: On December 27, 1521, three "prophets" appeared in Wittenberg from Zwickau who were influenced by (and, in turn, influencing) Thomas MntzerThomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch, and Mark Thomas Stbner. Anabaptist Historians looks forward to publishing a new anti-racism series over the coming year. [52][pageneeded][53], South German Anabaptism had its roots in German mysticism. [42], Melchior Hoffman is credited with the introduction of Anabaptist ideas into the Low Countries. Who are Anabaptists? George Blaurock appears to have preached itinerantly in the Puster Valley region in 1527, which most likely was the first introduction of Anabaptist ideas in the area. ps4 controller trigger keeps activating. No Christian has the, Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated, and excluded from the sacraments and from intercourse with believers unless they repent, according to, The movement began in a single expression in, It developed through several independent movements (, It was a continuation of true New Testament Christianity (, Voluntary church membership and believer's baptism, This page was last edited on 1 March 2023, at 12:40. William Barclay's undocumented estimate is 60,000,000 slaves in the Roman Empire (1975b:270). Anabaptists continue to teach that salvation makes us followers of Jesus Christ and that he is the model for the way we are to live. Seeking fellowship with other reform-minded people, the radical group wrote letters to Martin Luther, Andreas Karlstadt, and Thomas Mntzer. shooting in sahuarita arizona; traduction saturn sleeping at last; is bachendorff a good brand; The North, which had nothing to gain, was pressing Anabaptists also seemed to threaten social stability. Insistence on a church without classes or divisions. 29). Their followers survived and were eventually accepted as the Mennonite church. Members rejected the label Anabaptist, or Rebaptizer, for they repudiated their own baptism as infants as a blasphemous formality. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Mnsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. anabaptists and slavery. Tobin Miller Shearer, The Deepest Dichotomy: How A Sixty-Five-Year-Old Essay on Racism Helped Me Learn A Lesson From Before I Was Born, Anabaptist Historians, September 8, 2016. To stand in solidarity with those protesting police violence and interrelated forms of institutionalized racism, we have put together the following Anabaptist Anti-Racist Reading List. [76], Groups which are derived from the Schwarzenau Brethren, often called German Baptists, while not directly descended from the 16th-century Radical Reformation, are considered Anabaptist due to their adherence to Anabaptist doctrine. anabaptists and slavery anabaptists and slavery. anabaptists and slavery July 2, 2022 1:35 pm . In the end, we must come to say that this group of Christians does not reflect the historical teaching of the Baptists". Neither do they use worldly sword or war, since all killing has ceased with them. Tobin Miller Shearer, Martin and the Mennonites: Lessons From Kings Legacy for Today, Anabaptist Historians, January 20, 2020. Also included are similar discussions of the Hutterian (137 . Updated on June 25, 2019. And this involvement tends to lead to uncritical support for the Republican Party and various "wedge issues"most notably anti-abortion, pro-Israel, pro-death penalty, pro-militarism, and anti-homosexuality. anabaptists and slavery. the reputation of Anabaptists for many years to come'l~ though, hap pily, the Presbyterian Church Historian A. M. Renwick had the can dour to write: 'In the past most historians have represented these wild fanatics as being the founders of the Anabaptist movement. Hut even went so far as to predict a 1528 coming of the kingdom of God. If it is true that the Anabaptists came out of the Peasants' Revolt of 1525, this event was linked to social upheaval and to the demand for social equality. They were among the first to advocate separation of church and state and to condemn slavery. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that infant baptism was not part of scripture and was therefore null and void. Relatively recent research, begun in a more advanced and deliberate manner by Andrew P. Klager, also explores how the influence and a particular reading of the Church Fathers contributed to the development of distinctly Anabaptist beliefs and practices in separate regions of Europe in the early 16th century, including by Menno Simons in the Netherlands, Conrad Grebel in Switzerland, Thomas Mntzer in central Germany, Pilgram Marpeck in the Tyrol, Peter Walpot in Moravia, and especially Balthasar Hubmaier in southern Germany, Switzerland, and Moravia. The radicals restricted their biblicism to the New Testament and espoused three tenets that have come to be axiomatic in the United States: the separation of church and state, the voluntary church, and religious liberty. Anabaptist groups varied widely in their specific beliefs, but the Schleitheim Confession represents foundational Anabaptist beliefs as well as any single document can. The Anabaptists preached adult baptism, the removal of church hierarchy and pacifism. ", "In Editha's Days. Within the inspirationist wing of the Anabaptist movement, it was not unusual for charismatic manifestations to appear, such as dancing, falling under the power of the Holy Spirit, "prophetic processions" (at Zurich in 1525, at Munster in 1534 and at Amsterdam in 1535),[64] and speaking in tongues. Felipe Hinojosa, Hazels People, Anabaptist Historians,January 12, 2017. [40], Before Anabaptism proper was introduced to South Tyrol, Protestant ideas had been propagated in the region by men such as Hans Vischer, a former Dominican. [41], Jacob Hutter was one of the early converts in South Tyrol, and later became a leader among the Hutterites, who received their name from him. As well, the population in general seemed to have a favorable attitude towards reform, be it Protestant or Anabaptist. Id add Joanna Shenks interview with Vincent Harding, The Movement Makes Us Human, to the section on the Black freedom struggle. They also form part of the Protestants, and the group is estimated to have approximately four million followers today. In a society racked by violence and selfishness, Anabaptists called for placing the way of Jesus above self- and . Another method of categorization acknowledges regional variations, such as Swiss Brethren (Grebel, Manz), Dutch and Frisian Anabaptism (Menno Simons, Dirk Philips), and South German Anabaptism (Hbmaier, Marpeck). Anabaptists trace their heritage to the Radical Reformation of the 16th century. Research has shown that this view is undoubtedly erroneous. Since the 1980s, traditional Russian Mennonites migrated to Argentina. For their teachings regarding baptism and for the apparent danger they posed to the political order, they were ubiquitously persecuted. The Anabaptists were optimistic about the extent to which the Christian is able to keep the law. The brutal murder of George Floyd has exposed again the systematic injustices perpetrated by institutions of power against black and brown people in the United States and around the world. Just "a short time afterwards such a violent storm and flood came that the bridge was demolished". github twitter windows; what is the highest temperature that frost will occur; list of exclusive brethren businesses; hartlepool mail archives Since the red men have been exterminated by you white savages, I amuse myself by presiding at the persecutions of Quakers and Anabaptists; I am the great patron and prompter of slave-dealers and the grand-master of the Salem witches." Source (s) The Devil and Tom Walker For instance, Petr Chelick, a 15th-century Bohemian reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. 8) Interracial Alliances and the Problem of Tokenism. He groups Mntzer, Storch, et al. Omissions? [35] Zwingli broke off the meetings after two sessions, and Felix Manz petitioned the council to find a solution, since he felt Zwingli was too hard to work with. Disappointed with the failure of armed revolt, Anabaptist ideals of an alternative peaceful, just society probably resonated on the ears of the disappointed peasants. Some Anabaptists were revolutionaries. To the radicals, the council had no right to make that decision, but rather the Bible was the final authority of church reform. Lisa Schirch, How Mennonites Reckon with our History in the Holocaust, Anabaptist Historians, March 23, 2018. anabaptists and slavery. Thus, when sixteen of the radicals met on Saturday evening, January 21, 1525, the situation seemed particularly dark. The brokenness of our wider society impedes efforts to fully grasp systemic injustice. Thanks so much for this wonderful resource. Noyalas, Jonathan A., et al. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. It was an event that was also linked to Luther's comment that "you can be a slave and a Christian". Where men have caught the Anabaptist vision of discipleship, they have become worthy of that heritage. Because of persecution and expansion, some of the Low Country Mennonites emigrated to Vistula delta, a region settled by Germans but under Polish rule until it became part of Prussia in 1772. In an attempt at reform within the Anabaptist movement, Ammann advocated stricter policies of church discipline and simple living. why is my package stuck in germany February 16, 2022 Most Anabaptists were pacifists who opposed war and the use of coercive measures to maintain the social order; they also refused to swear oaths, including those to civil authorities. Others explore cases when Anabaptists meaningfully spoke truth to power within their own denominational contexts or beyond. Early Anabaptist Spirituality: Selected Writings, The Classics of Western Spirituality (New York: Paulist, 1994), 17-134. 1534 Strassburg decrees that Anabaptists must leave the city 1535 Charles V conquers Tunis and frees 20,000 Christian slaves 1538 Landgrave Philip of Hesse arranges debate between Anabaptists. They held that infants and young children are not accountable for sin until they become aware of good and evil and can exercise their own free will, repent, and accept baptism. Anabaptists believe in the Judeo-Christian God and in his son Jesus Christ. Ben Goossen, The Pacifist Roots of an American Nazi, Boston Review, May 2, 2019. "[70], The major branches of Anabaptist Christianity today include the Amish, Shwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Hutterites, Mennonites, Apostolic Christian Church, and Bruderhof. Anabaptist, (from Greek ana, "again") member of a fringe, or radical, movement of the Protestant Reformation and spiritual ancestor of modern Baptists, Mennonites, and Quakers. Author Calvin Pater showed how Andreas Karlstadt influenced Swiss Anabaptism in various areas, including his view of Scripture, doctrine of the church, and views on baptism. They believe Christ was sent to earth to die for the sins of all people and that anyone who accepts Christ as his savior is saved from hell and can live forever in heaven. Referring to some who had been raised from the dead, he wrote: "Many of them have remained constant, enduring tortures inflicted by sword, rope, fire and water and suffering terrible, tyrannical, unheard-of deaths and martyrdoms, all of which they could easily have avoided by recantation. "[59] In Anabaptist theology, the pathway to salvation is "marked not by a forensic understanding of salvation by 'faith alone', but by the entire process of repentance, self-denial, faith rebirth and obedience. anabaptists and slavery From European imperial expansion and the Dutch slave trade to settler colonialism and displacement of native peoples, the origins and development of Anabaptist churches have been shaped and reformed in crucibles of injustice. [f] When it was introduced by the Anabaptists in the 15th and 16th centuries, religious freedom which was independent from the state was unthinkable to both clerical and governmental leaders. Tobin Miller Shearer, State of the Race: A Short History of Mennonite Racial Statements, 1940-1979, Anabaptist Historians, October 3, 2019. The council then called a meeting for January 17, 1525. Quite confident that they were living at the end of time, they expected the imminent return of Jesus Christ. These baptisms were the first "re-baptisms" known in the movement. Journal of Mennonite Studies, 2013, Vol.31. In the 1920s, the conservative faction of the Canadian settlers went to Mexico and Paraguay. The era of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation in Europe spawned a number of radical reform groups, among them the Anabaptists. Tobin Miller Shearer, Money, Sex, and Power: The Black Manifesto and the Minority Ministries Council, Anabaptist Historians,April 13, 2017. They were the result of the Scriptural studies of three men: Ulrich Zwingli, Felix Manz, and Conrad Grebel. Just another site They denied the merit of infant baptism, however. Anabaptism was never established by any state and therefore never enjoyed any associated privileges. For the Mennonite side, the emphasis on the "inner" and "spiritual" permitted compromise to "escape persecution", while to the Joris side, the Mennonites were under the "dead letter of the Scripture".[46]. Mennonites entered Nazi consciousness in 1929, when 13,000 refugees descended on Moscow, clamoring to leave the Soviet Union. "Possibilities of Erasmian Influence on Denck and Hubmaier in Their Views of Freedom of the Will. [45] Obbe later became disillusioned with Anabaptism and withdrew from the movement in about 1540, but not before ordaining David Joris, his brother Dirk, and Menno Simons, the latter from whom the Mennonites received their name. Germany has the most significant number amounting to almost 50% of the total. [60], As a whole, Anabaptists emphasize an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity and are thus distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include the observance of feetwashing, the holy kiss, and communion (with these three ordinances being practiced collectively in the lovefeast in the Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren traditions), Christian headcovering, nonconformity to the world, nonresistance, forgiveness, and sharing possessions, which in certain communities (as with the Bruderhof) takes on the form of communal living. The Anabaptists are a somewhat diverse group of religious movements tracing their origin, directly or indirectly, back to the radical reformers of the Swiss reformation that began in Zurich in the early 16th century, though they claim their beliefs and practices closely reflect those practiced by the earliest Christians and are taught in the New Testament. Some examples of. Most Anabaptists adhere to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 57, which teaches against hate, killing, violence, taking oaths, participating in use of force or any military actions, and against participation in civil government.
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